The sound of Rotterdam

The characterization of the city through film sound

Life in the city has always played a major role in cinema. It can be said that the vast majority of films are set in cities. From the very first films, such as L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat (Brothers Lumière, 1896), the modernity of the urban environment was filmed. According to David B. Clarke's definition of the cinematic city, urban development and film are inextricably linked: without the city, film could not have developed further and films in turn have shaped the city. Clarke states in his collection The Cinematic City (1997): “the city has undeniably been shaped by the cinematic form, just as cinema owes much of its nature to the historical development of the city” (p. 2). Consider, for example, the fact that thanks to film we know the appearance of the world cities New York, London and Paris so well, without ever having been there. In Hollywood films in particular, many clichés are shown when a city is depicted. The visualization of a city is usually a 'tourist' perspective, by showing mainly internationally known aspects such as monuments and highlights of the cityscape. The image of these cities is etched in our memory by the influence of film. Film is therefore visually responsible for conveying the image of a city. But does this also apply to the sound of the city in film? Cinematic cities do have characteristic features in terms of sound, for example, street scenes in New York are often provided with police sirens and Paris is often introduced accompanied by accordion music. But does every city, in addition to its characteristic visual representation, also have its own ambient sound? What are the characteristics of the sound of the city and with which method can this best be investigated? And how do filmmakers create an image of specific cities by means of sound?

When it comes to the development of the ambient sound of the city, R. Murray Schafer is an authority. As the initiator of the World Soundscape Project at Simon Fraser University in the 1970s, Schafer introduces in his book The Tuning of the World (1977) his definition of the soundscape, which has had a great influence on everyone who writes about the phenomenon of sound. In defining the soundscape, Schafer classifies the sounds of the countryside, in order to map the evolution of sound through history. With this method one comes to know, as he himself states: “whether there were any particular or recurrent patterns that would make it possible to determine the principles of soundscape design” (Schafer, 1994). Schafer examines the history of man and its relationship with ambient sound and describes how over the past hundred years natural and harmonious sounds have been replaced by mechanical sounds and dissonances. He argues that the world is an acoustic composition, which in addition to the natural sounds of natural forces and animals in the past was also deliberately created in the form of bells or sirens above a city to organize the rhythms of people's lives. Schafer sees the increasing noise pollution of modern, mechanized urban life, through industrial, commercial, and traffic noises, as eroding the original sounds of the countryside, sea, and forest. Sociologist and urban planner Rowland Atkinson (2005, 2007) calls the complex ways in which urban soundscapes are formed an 'auditory' or 'sonic ecology' and he argues that they influence our everyday experiences of the city. Schafer visualizes these sonic ecologies by examining different urban soundscapes. His work on Vancouver in The Vancouver Soundscape (1973) provides detailed descriptions of Vancouver's infrastructures and processes, including ship's whistles, foghorns, and sirens. The descriptions are accompanied by photographs, sound graphs, tables, maps, and vinyl sound fragments. Schafer has made an attempt to map the soundscape of a specific city. However, that was in the 70s and since then there have been hardly any developments to define the soundscape of more cities. Because film plays a crucial role in the imagination of the city, it is interesting to investigate how specific soundscapes are filmed. Apart from a few initiatives, such as the Soundseeker project (see http://www.soundseeker.org/), in which users can upload and listen to their own recordings of street sounds from specific locations in New York, a further elaboration of Schafer's method on the city and how this is expressed in film is lacking.

As Clarke has argued, the relationship between film and the city is of great influence on the image of a city. Film sound is important in incorporating the spectator into the film world of the city. Siegfried Krakauer suggests in Theory of film: the redemption of physical reality (1965) that film goes beyond artistic representation: its affective mechanisms form the communication of sensory phenomena. Cinema can make us physically aware of the physical world by creating an entire sensory world within the space of the screen. In 'Sound from the City in Film Noir' (2012), Eloise Ross examines the relationship between film sound and the representation of the city in film noir and searches for the way to create the specific presence of the spectator in the city, and of the city around the spectator, with city sounds. According to Ross, for example, the cinematic presence of a city like New York is enhanced by means of sound. The sound of the modern metropolis is so vivid and sonorous that the viewer easily moves into the world of the film through the urban soundscape. When the city is presented in film, the viewer becomes an inhabitant of that city. The range of sounds that the city offers forms an intense soundscape that is crucial to our experience of the cinematic space. According to Ross, sound is the most essential part of the city, since it is always present thanks to the movements of its inhabitants. Ross describes the importance of the diegetic soundscape in the soundtrack as follows:

“Watching the city, which is such a huge and visually spectacular cinematic subject, we can be materially connected with the spatial realm through sensory participation in the auditory realm, creating an affective co-presence between film and spectator-auditor. At a basic level, city films can affect the spectator's sensorial register if they have a completely spatial soundscape, and do not intrude into the space with an extradiegetic audio track. Such an intrusion will deter our investment in, our relationship to, and our experience with the cine-world” (Ross, 2012: < http://www.sensesofcinema.com/>).

Even when the city is not visibly present, as in Ross' example from the opening of The lost weekend (Billy Wilder, 1945):

“Once we have been drawn into the city, the established soundscape blends into the background as the camera moves to the interior of the police station and the prime focus moves to dialogue as narrative enhancement. Yet our material inclusion in the city is not broken, as at all levels inside the building, even though we are removed from direct relation to the street, traffic, car horns, and sirens can still be heard. In this way sound contributes to the spatial construction within the film by allowing us to hear what we cannot see, and listen beyond the immediate visual dimension”

(Ross, 2012: < http://www.sensesofcinema.com/>).

Ross argues that for regular film viewers, many of the everyday sounds of the metropolis are defined by film.

Although much research has been done on the relationship between the urban environment, film and sound within Film Studies, Sound Studies, Urban Studies and Audio Culture Studies, there is a lack of focused studies on the characteristic sound of specific cities. The studies focus only on the city in general. Since film sound plays a major role in the portrayal of a specific city, it is interesting to investigate how filmmakers shape the soundscape of a city. But also how the cinematic soundscape corresponds to reality. Does a city like London, for example, have a typical ambient sound in addition to its characteristic cityscape? And if so, is this sound also conveyed by means of the soundtrack in film in music, ambient sounds and speech? In this essay I will work towards a method to link Schafer's soundscape to a specific city, the image of that city and film sound. Through the interaction of the phenomenon soundscape, the specific soundscape of a city, the cinematic soundscape of a city in combination with the image of a city, concrete conclusions can be drawn as to whether a certain city has a characteristic soundscape.

In this thesis I investigate how different film genres have shaped the image of the city, using Rotterdam as a case study. In this essay I will also use Rotterdam as a case study. Since this city is not nearly as famous internationally as New York, London or Paris, the Rotterdam soundscape can be studied more easily and without prejudice. Without the prejudices that media construct about cities, the researcher can listen much more alertly and give a more accurate description of what the characteristics of the soundscape are. Based on the insights in The tuning of the world and Urban Studies I will investigate how the unique urban soundscape can be defined.

For the analysis in the case study of the soundscape of Rotterdam, three films that sketch an image of the city will also be analysed. These are Marcel Visbeen's harbour romance in the film Havenblues (1998), Karel Doing's city symphony Images of a moving city (2001) and Jelle Nesna's feature film Carmen van het Noorden (2009). First, I will describe which message the films construct with visual aspects about Rotterdam. Then, using these objects, I will argue that the films not only construct the image of Rotterdam with images, but that sound also plays a crucial role in the formation of the typical Rotterdam soundscape.

2        THE SOUNDSCAPE

Schafer's definition of soundscape is primarily described as the sonic environment, or as he states: “Technically, any portion of the sonic environment regarded as a field for study. The term may refer to actual environments, or to abstract constructions such as musical compositions and tape montages, particularly when considered as an environment” (p. 274). Schafer describes urban soundscapes in particular and places the sounds within history as signals of socio-cultural life. Soundscapes are always variable in space and time and are dependent on the global and local situation. In order to analyze the most important characteristics of the soundscape, Schafer presents three categories to separate the main elements: keynote sounds, signals and soundmarks. Keynote sounds are sounds that fill the environment, but are not consciously heard. Think for example of the sounds produced by geographical elements and the climate, such as water, wind, forest, mountains, birds, insects and animals (p. 10).  In contrast to keynote sounds, one can consciously listen to signals. These can be bells, whistles, horns and sirens and must be heard because they are warning mechanisms. The soundmark concerns the characteristic and unique sound of a certain community (Ibid.).

                  In addition, Schafer mentions the terms sound event and sound object as characteristic elements of the soundscape. Both elements are defined as the smallest individual parts of the soundscape that the human ear can hear. The difference between the two is that the sound event is a symbolic, semantic or structural object for study and is therefore a good reference point, while the sound object is an abstract acoustic object for study. Both terms will be useful during the investigation of the soundscape of the city.

Finally, Schafer describes the shift from hi-fi sound to lo-fi sound. With both terms, the author refers to the relationship between signal and noise. The higher this distinction, the easier it is to distinguish between what is 'information' and what is not. The hi-fi soundscape is one in which soft sounds are clearly audible as a result of less ambient noise (p. 43). According to Schafer, urban soundscapes are therefore lo-fi, since cities have a higher density of sound-producing activities: “Today the world suffers from an overpopulation of sounds; there is so much acoustic information that little of it can emerge with clarity” (p. 71).

Now that we have discussed Schafer's soundscape theory, it is important to know how the soundscape of the urban environment has developed and looks like today. Schafer states that since humans started to settle in cities and thanks to the Industrial Revolution, our soundscape has changed drastically. The original soundscape of the countryside was relatively quiet, except for natural sounds of animals and the weather. The loudest sounds were those of war and religious rituals, the latter of which were based on natural sounds such as thunder, to be heard by the gods. Since the Industrial Revolution, many new sounds came and had a negative impact on a large part of the natural and human sounds. The arrival of machines, such as gas engines and steam engines, created a new kind of noise that drowned out all other sounds. Think for example of the sound of the train that symbolizes the sound of modern transportation. In the present time, the engines of traffic and transportation dominate the soundscape of the city. Schafer divides the sounds of the modern city soundscape into the following categories: traffic (car, truck, motorcycle), other transportation (train, airplane), working machines (street sweepers, construction sites, factories/industries), music, people (speech, walking), and nature (wind, animals).

The ambient noise of the modern city, as described above, depends on the location. Schafer is aware that not every metropolis has the same soundscape. For example, he compares the number of complaints about noise pollution based on categories of noise in London, Chicago, Johannesburg, Vancouver, Paris and Munich. What is striking is that in Johannesburg, South Africa, the most complaints are about animal noises, while in London traffic noise is the biggest irritation factor. In Paris, traffic noise does not even appear in the table, but the most complaints are about noise pollution from neighbours and road works. Although not every city has the nuisance of mechanical noises in first place, these noises (traffic, construction work and industry) cause the most complaints. Nevertheless, it can be said that the type of soundscape strongly depends on the urban form of a city, the largest local industry, the location and the climate.

As Schafer also states in his book, the ear is much more alert when one is in an unfamiliar environment. For example, Schafer quotes the soundscape diary of an American student who has been to Rio de Janeiro and is able to distinguish many more sounds than in his hometown of New York. The soundscape of New York consists of sounds of traffic, car horns, homeless people, buses, subways, foreign languages, drunks and police sirens. In Rio de Janeiro, on the other hand, twice as many sounds are noted, from street vendors, telephones, car tires on cobblestones, street vendors to cockatoos, monkeys, steam engines and old manual elevators. This comparison also reveals the great differences in sounds from the two cities. For example, the student calls the sound of New York only 'traffic', while in Rio de Janeiro the sound of predominantly old cars from the 1940s and 1950s is specifically mentioned. The sound of the old cars can therefore be considered a characteristic of Rio de Janeiro and contributes to the characteristic soundscape of the Brazilian city.

The architectural design of the urban space also has a strong influence on the formation of the soundscape. For example, the tone and volume depend on the number and height of buildings, the amount of greenery and the facade structure. Manon Raimbault and Danielle Dubois state in 'Urban Soundscapes: experiences and knowledge' (2005) that because the soundscape depends on time, space and location, a specific space can develop into an acoustic image of a city. Raimbout and Dubois give an example of a typical urban morphology, such as medieval architecture, Hassmann's buildings and modern infrastructure. In Figure 1, they show an example of the soundscapes of European urban locations using drawings by Raimbault (2002). According to Raimbault and Dubois, densification has led to the fact that buildings are built higher and deeper underground. The various drawings show that the scale of the buildings has changed over time and form the urban design and therefore also the type of ambient sound.

Figure 1: Development in the architectural design of facades. Source: Raimbault and Dubois, 2002: p. 9.

Schafer confirms this observation with regard to the height of buildings in urban environments: “Looking at the profile of a medieval European city we at once note that the castle, the city wall and the church spire dominate the scene. In the modern city it is the high-rise apartment, the bank tower and the factory chimney which are the talles structures” (p. 53).

                  Sound designer Sophie Arkette argues in 'Sounds like city' (2004) that because urban space is constantly being divided into communities determined by economic, cultural, ethnic and religious motives. This ensures that the acoustic profiles are constantly subject to change. The amplitude and density of the sound level are also variable because they depend on the time of day or the day of the week. She gives the changing soundscape of London as an example:

“Walk around the commercial London districts of Bank or Clerkenwell on a weekend and you'll find that these hollow spaces resonate footsteps in a number of distinct ways; from the sharp attack as sound is reflected off glass to the softer sonic envelopes as sound collides with, and is partially absorbed by, stone. On the other hand, walking through Brick Lane market on a Sunday morning you can hear myriad vocalized advertisements, each voice having its own distinct inflection, modulation and rhythmic pattern” (p. 162).

But in Venice, on the other hand, the soundscape is still determined by church bells, which reinforce the sense of time and religion. In the Italian city, which extends over many islands, each church bell acts as a marker for a district. The soundmarks of church bells are very decisive for the characterization of the soundscape of a particular city. They form a signature for a community, like Big Ben in London, Salzburg's Salvatore Mundi and Stockholm's Stadhuset carillon (Schafer, p. 239). Even in car horns, according to Schafer, there are great differences in pitch and interval between nations: “In North American cars the interval of the two horns is set at a major or minor third. (...) In Turkish cars, horns are tuned to the interval of a major or minor third” (p. 243). In this way, the location of the soundscape can be inferred from traffic sounds.

Another important aspect of the changing soundscape is rhythm and tempo. Schafer states that the natural environment contains many types of rhythms: “those deviding day from night, sun from moon, summer from winter” (p. 229), and these have a great influence on the changeability of the soundscape. The seasons that provide: light and dark; activity and rest; sound and silence; all play a role in the formation of the natural soundscape. The urban soundscape makes natural rhythms largely disappear. The Industrial Revolution has ensured that seasonal variations, the difference between day and night, have little meaning. Schafer writes:

“The factory (...) eliminated the difference between night and day, a precedent which was extended to the city itself when modern lighting electrocuted the candle and night watchman. If we were to make a continuous recording on a downtown street of a modern city, it would show little variation from day to day, season to season. The continuous sludge of traffic noise would obscure whatever more subtle variations might exist” (p. 230).

3        THE CHARACTERISTIC SOUNDSCAPE

In order to find out what the soundscape of a specific city is, the different sounds at different locations in the city in question will have to be analyzed. During a so-called soundwalk, one can best investigate which types of sounds are audible per location and what the most characteristic sounds of the soundscape of that area are compared to the other locations. Schafer describes the soundwalk as “[...] an exploration of the soundscape of a given area using a score as guide. The score consists of a map, drawing the listener's attention to unusual sounds and ambiances to be heard along the way” (p. 213). The soundscape can be mapped using Schafer's definitions in order to define and categorize the city sounds. Using a case study, in which the soundscape of Rotterdam is defined, I will illustrate the method to link the soundscape of the city to the cinematic soundscape.

Table 1 shows a classification of the various sound objects and events, divided into the categories 'mechanical sounds', 'warning signals', 'music', 'speech' and 'other keynote sounds'. Mechanical sounds include all electric and steam-driven engines. In the modern city, these sounds are produced by city and work traffic and the public transport network and form both keynote sounds at long distances and signal sounds at short distances. Warning signals, or signal sounds, include all sounds that attract the attention of the citizen above and beyond the mechanical sounds. These are horns from road and water traffic, sounds from public transport vehicles, sirens from police, ambulance and fire engines and mobile phones from pedestrians. The third category is 'music' from shops (muzak) and car radios and CD players and mobile phones, an interesting source of information about the common culture(s) of the location in question. Certain common music genres provide clues about the population composition of the city and can be considered soundmarks. The same applies to the category 'speech', which also uses language and language accent to determine the population composition. Finally, other keynote sounds include background sounds that will not be immediately noticed within the setting of the urban environment, such as: wind, water, bird sounds, but also footsteps.

The types of sounds in Table 1 are based on all sounds that were audible for thirty minutes at four different locations in the city on a weekday afternoon. The marking (X) indicates whether the sound event/object was present at 1 or more locations. The locations are at the Rijnhaven waterfront of the Wilhelminapier, the intersection of the Kop van Zuid at the foot of the Erasmus Bridge, the Coolsingel at the Beurs and the high-rise cluster at the Weena. For fifteen minutes per location, each sound that is a part of the soundscape was defined and noted.

Table 1: Soundscape of Rotterdam, captured during a soundwalk.

Now that the field research has been conducted, the question is, what does this table tell us about the soundscape of Rotterdam? Does the table show certain aspects that are striking and therefore characteristic of the Rotterdam acoustic space? As the table shows, Rotterdam has a remarkably large number of mechanical sounds, originating from road traffic, shipping and construction work. The mechanical sounds are extremely dominant and primarily drown out all other sounds. Outliers are the large amount of heavy traffic, the many scooters and the aggressive driving behaviour in the form of screeching brakes and hard acceleration of cars and motorcycles. In addition, a number of typical sounds were heard, including the sound of ship chains and industrial machinery from two factories. All these mechanical sounds correspond with the visual characteristics of the city, namely; it is a city with relatively many large traffic boulevards for Dutch standards; it is a port city in which part of the port activities take place in the city centre; it is a city with port-related industries that are located close to the city centre. The second category of warning signals is characterized by honking and warning sounds of trams, buses and opening bridges. The third category of music shows a number of soundmarks that indicate the cultural differences of the city, namely the many car radios that produced Arabic music. This fact refers to the large minority groups consisting of Turks and Moroccans that live in the city. This fact is also reflected in the large number of different languages ​​that were spoken: Chinese, Turkish, Moroccan, Afrikaans and Antillean. Finally, the other keynote sounds can also characterize the city because the lapping of water against the quay, seagulls and wind are characteristic of the port city.

4        CINEMATIC SOUNDSCAPE

Table 1 shows which environmental sounds form the sound of Rotterdam, but also which categories dominate the soundscape. In Table 2, the result of the analysis of the films Carmen van het Noorden, Images of a moving city and Havenblues has been added to the original table. Most sound events and sound objects that appear in the film soundtrack correspond to the actual soundscape of the city. With the films, the filmmakers give their vision of Rotterdam through images. The image of the city consists of street scenes, port-related objects and the river and the inhabitants. The films show a multicultural, changing and dynamic metropolis that has the cityscape of an international port city. The following analyses of the film objects will show whether the sound of Rotterdam confirms this image.

In the feature film Carmen van het Noorden, about a young detective who falls in love with the seductive Carmen during a major murder case, Rotterdam is shown as a large, dangerous and multicultural city. A city dominated by heavy traffic, neon lights and abandoned factory sites. The opening scenes form a city symphony in which a dynamic non-Dutch city is shown by means of fast images of the Rotterdam streets at night. The nondiegetic music in the soundtrack, produced by Pete Philly & Perquisite, is a mix of hip hop and oriental sounds and refers to the multicultural character and street culture of Rotterdam. In addition, the Rotterdam soundscape is formed by a large number of mechanical sounds from cars, trams, hard-accelerating engines and screeching brakes. Regularly during the film shots are shown of the river, ships and abandoned harbour areas and we hear the water splashing against the quays, wind, ship engines and horns and industrial machine sounds. The cast shows a mix of actors with diverse cultural backgrounds who speak with a strong foreign (e.g. Moroccan and Antillean) accent. The sound events and objects that together form the soundscape of Rotterdam in Carmen van het Noorden show a great number of similarities with the actual soundscape of the city. Table 2 clarifies the similarities.

                  The emphasis on the traffic of the port city is also strongly evident in Images of a moving city, in which Karel Doing makes a documentary poem about Rotterdam and its inhabitants. Doing's shots show images from the car, train and metro and focus on the beauty of the Rotterdam streets, traffic junctions, high-rise buildings in the city centre, construction work and waste processing. The emphasis is on the traffic flows in and around the city and the soundtrack also consists of a composition of mechanical sounds of traffic on the motorway; the noise of a skyscraper under construction; the squeaking trams that echo between the high facades of the Weena and the mechanical sounds of the waste incineration machines. We hear different accents, including the characteristic Rotterdam accent during a conversation on the terrace. Images of a moving city constructs the image of a modern metropolis that represents the traffic city of Rotterdam and its inhabitants. The Rotterdam soundscape is also characterised in the soundtrack of this city symphony by mechanical sounds that are produced by the dominant infrastructure.

                  In the opening of Havenblues, a man is shown driving through Rotterdam, using a quick montage of short shots, while busy on the phone, honking and listening to house music. The sounds of ringtones, impatient honking and aggressive music confirm the image of the city, as can be seen from the table. We also hear ship horns, the warning signal of an opening bridge and the sound of seagulls, but also a pile driver, water and sailing ships. Filmmaker Marcel Visbeen combines musical instruments, a saxophone, guitar and accordion, with which jazz, modern music and an old Dutch song are played respectively. Through music, Visbeen establishes the connection between the present and the past of Rotterdam. Between the busy city life and the harbour where time seems to stand still. Visbeen refers to the city before and after the Second World War, the city centre that has undergone a total metamorphosis and the harbour that has essentially remained the same. From a radio, the station 'Radio Rotterdam' is announced with a Rotterdam accent and in the café the singer sings an old tearjerker. In Havenblues, a characteristic soundscape is created by means of ambient sounds of the city and harbour, music genres and songs that reflects the sound of Rotterdam even more than the other two films.

Table 2: The cinematic soundscape of Rotterdam in combination with the result of the soundwalk.

CONCLUSION

The analysis shows that Rotterdam has a unique soundscape and that this is also conveyed by means of film. The soundtrack of the films emphasizes mechanical sounds that on the one hand indicate life in a metropolis and on the other hand underline the relationship between the city and the port. Now it is of course true that more cities that are a port city like Rotterdam can have the same soundscape, but it is the combination of different types of sounds that makes the soundscape so characteristic. It is the combination and the small aspects of the ambient sound, such as the horn of a certain type of ship or the warning signal of trams and traffic lights that refine the location. The echoes, sounds and pitches of, for example, the traffic noise in streets with many high-rise buildings, such as the Weena, also determine the relationship between the image of the city and the sound of that city (as Raimbault and Dubois indicate). A city with mainly low-rise buildings would not have the same sound effect. The same research could also be done with Amsterdam, for example. Does the capital have its own sound like Rotterdam and is this also reflected in film? And if so, what are the differences between the soundscapes of both cities? The aim of this research is to connect the different disciplines from Urban Studies to Film/Sound Studies in order to find out how our cinematic cities sound. This essay therefore serves as a recommendation for further studies into the sound of specific cities that serve as a backdrop in cinema. It is interesting to investigate, for example, whether the many American cinematic cities differ from each other not only in the visual, but also in the auditory cityscape. What makes the soundscape of New York typically New York, and not that of Los Angeles?

SOURCES

Literature

Arkette, Sophie. 'Sounds Like City'. Theory, Culture & Society, jrg. 21, No. 1 (2004): 159-168.

Atkinson, Rowland. 'Ecology of Sound: The Sonic Order of Urban Space'. Urban Studies, jrg.          44, no. 10 (September 2007): p. 1905-1917.

Clarke, David B., ed. The Cinematic City. New York/London: Routledge, 1997.

Dubois, Daniele, Manon Raimbault. 'Urban soundscapes: Experiences and knowledge'. Cities        jrg. 22, no. 5 (2005): p. 339-350.

Ross, Eloise. 'Sounds from the City in Film Noir'. Senses of Cinema, March 18, 2010. 24-03-            2012  <http://www.sensesofcinema.com/2012/feature-articles/sounds-from-the-city-in-  film noir/>

Schafer, R. Murray. The Tuning of the World. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1977.

Other media

Carmen of the North. Reg. Jelle Nesna. Fu Works, 2009.

Harbor blues. Reg. Marcel Visbeen. NPS, 1998.

Images of a moving city. Reg. Karel Doing. Film bank, 2001.

Sound Seeker: <http://www.soundseeker.org/>

[1] Quote from De Klerk 1998: p. 37, quoted after Van de Laar 2000: p. 8.

[2] Quote from Lichtenauer 1958: p. 126-138, quoted after Van de Laar 2000: p. 9.

[3] Quote from Dekking 1900: p. 143, quoted after Van de Laar 2000: p. 10.

[4] Quote from Poeth and Van Dongen 1984, quoted after Van der Laar 2000: p. 11.